Buddhist Sects and Schisms
by Roshi Hogen Berman

Buddhism, as a term or title for this "way of life", religion, psychology or philosophy, was coined only 300 years ago to identify what we now know to be a Pan-Asian tradition that dates back over 2,500 years. To this day, among the followers of Buddhism and the non-followers, between philosophers, scholars, teachers and students, there does not seem to be a consensus as to its exact definition.

Buddhism, in its later years, i.e. during the first 100 years of the Common Era, came to be known as the "Civilization Religion." Where practiced, it has caused cultural unification and set many social standards. It also set standards for religions, philosophies, the arts, and many other aspects of society to which a whole range of other Asian traditions were motivated to respond.

The French Buddhologist, Louis de La Valle'e Poussin coined a phrase which in his mind explains Buddhism. He said:

"Buddhism is a belief system condensed around the name of the Shakyamuni Buddha, and in short, consists of whatever Buddhist men and women have said, done and held dear over the ages. Secondly, the concept suggests some universal character or order in the overwhelming diversity encompassed by the first usage. The beginning of the process has been to consider Buddhism as an example of larger categories such as a religion, philosophy, or even a civilization, an independent culture. However, it seems to escape from any and all ordering principles that do not take into full account the first meaning."

The term sect is used to denote a group or faction of a whole that hold common views and follow the same leadership. Etymologically the term is usually related to the Latin "Sequi" (to follow) rather than the somewhat negative term "Secare" (To cut). As Sequi, it does not carry the implication of schism, although most frequently use of the term "Sect" has a negative connotation. In societies with a dominant established religion the label "sect" is usually assigned to all groups separated from the group holding dominant "religious authority." However in each case we should ask the question, did the sect become segregated or formed because of differing opinions regarding doctrine, or because of how the mutually agreed upon doctrine was being practiced and lived?

The first major schism in the Buddhist Sangha is thought to have occurred during the reign of Jhng Kanishka (circa 100 AD). He was a Buddhist convert. During the so-called "Fourth Council of the Sangha" (I say "so called" because it was held by the Northern Buddhist and not recognized as a valid council by the Southern Buddhist). It is said that during this conference the Mahayana (Great Ferry or Vehicle) Division was formed. By default the Southern Division, or School, became known by the somewhat denigrating title of the Hinayana Division (Smaller or Lesser Ferry or Vehicle).

Scholars have sought to identify the characteristic order of Buddhism by dividing the cumulative tradition into more manageable parts, whether by chronology, by school, or by country. They have divided Buddhism into three schools more or less along philosophical lines.

The first phase is represented by the Theravada (Way of the Elders) and Sava-stivada (All Things Are Real) Schools. They emphasized the no-soul idea and the reality of the constituents (Dharma) of the world. A middle phase, represented by the Madhyamika (Middle Way) School, introduced the idea of ultimate Emptiness (Sunyata) of all phenomena. A third phase, represented by the Vijnanavada (Consciousness Only) School, was philosophically idealistic in character.

Other scholars have elaborated on a scheme based upon the "Three Vehicles" or "Yanas." (Normally only two vehicles are mentioned but in fact there were (are) three.) These three are characterized by a difference in understanding of the Dharma as taught by the Buddha, the process as a whole, and the goal of freedom or salvation.

The Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle or Small Ferry) elaborated on a gradual process of individual salvation and in that context, emphasized the attainment to the status of an Arahat, the attainment of a Pratyeka Buddha (one who achieves enlightenment on his own, but does not become a teacher) status, and the attainment of a fully enlightened Buddha, who teaches others the way of salvation.

The Theravada and Sarvastiva Schools are two of the major elements included in what might be called the Hinayana Division. The term Hinayana was in its origins a pejorative title coined by the adherents of another (neo) movement who were self designated as the "Mahayana" (Great Vehicle, Large Ferry) and whose newly generated texts and teachings were rejected the Hinayanist.

The Mahayanists (Northern Division of Buddhism) elaborated a gradual path of salvation (somewhat the same as the Hinayanists) which suggested it took many lifetimes for one to reach the peak but the Mahayanists emphasis was different in two very important and related respects: -They held that an individuals redemption or the path to freedom from suffering process could be aided and abetted by what some Mahayana Sects designated as "Other Power." They recognized, ultimately, only one Dharma goal, the attainment of fully realized Buddhahood.

The Vajrayana (Diamond Vehicle), which is also known as "Mantrayana" (Sacred Sound Vehicle), Esoteric or Tantric Buddhism, accepted the basic approach and goal of the Mahayana, but felt that the individual realization could be accomplished more quickly, in some cases, even in this present life. (Why not? Assuming one has been working toward this goal for many earlier life cycles.). The Vajrayanists describe the practices that lead to this attainment in texts called, "Tantras" that were not accepted by either the Hinayana or Mahayana Divisions. That is why they are considered a separate Division. Although the Hinayana/Mahayana/Vajrayana schema is probably the most common divisor used by Buddhist scholars to divide Buddhism into manageable segments, it too has serious drawbacks. It tends to underestimate the significance of Buddhistic developments during the first thousand years of the Common Era and it tends to over emphasize certain traits that did develop as extreme differences when in fact they were not of major importance.

History tells us, and we can see for ourselves, that Buddhism was shaped to a great extent by its surrounding culture, the environment into which the seeds were transplanted. Buddhism, has shown an enduring capacity and tendency to adapt to local customs and forms; as a result, we can see how it has adapted and in some cases transformed in various cultures. The extent of this transformation can be seen in the difficulty Western observers have in recognizing that the Buddhism they see in China, Japan, Tibet and Sri Lanka are quite different in practice and perhaps in the understanding of the doctrine but never the less, they are historically related.

By the time the Second Buddhist Council was held in the city of Vai'sali during the fourth century BCE, the Buddhist community had already divided itself into two competing assemblies. The members of each group supported positions that correspond to modern scholarly groups who associate the "original" or "true" Buddhism with an elite monastic tradition, and those who associate it with a more democratic and populist tradition. A schism occurred at, or shortly after, the Second Great Council. Those who adhered to the former position came to be known in Sanskrit as "STHAVIRADINS", in Pali as "Theravadins." Commonly translated as "The Way of The Elders." Those who held to the latter position came to be known as the "Mahasamighikas" (Members of the Great Assembly). During the following years, Buddhism retained a considerable degree of unity across both regional and text-oriented boundaries that helped delineate particular traditions (Buddhist traditions, not particularly cultural traditions), in the respective cultural areas and in each of the Yanas. Yanas as used in this context refers to the various sects and schools of Buddhism that branched out over the centuries. Literally the term Yana is a Pali term which means Ferry, or Vehicle, as in Mahayana or Hinayana, i.e. Large Vehicle and Small Vehicle. It is often used when referring to the teachings of the various Sects and Schools meaning it is these teachings that provide the vehicle for one to reach the far shore.

Consistently in the past (and even today) there were and are ascetics and contemplatives who practice only Buddhist Meditation; there were those Monks, Priests and Moralists whose primary concern was maintaining Buddhist discipline; there were those Monks and lay persons who were involved in various levels of Buddhist devotion; and there were those who took a special interest in Buddhist magic and exorcism. These diverse groups and individuals shared, and many realized that they shared, beliefs, attitudes and practices with like minded Buddhist not only in distant geographical areas but in other Yanas as well.

Can Buddhists ever expect to reconcile their divergent views? Consider some of the problems they are faced with. Among the Theravadians, particularly in Sri Lanka during the 9th and 10th centuries, a group of Monks, calling themselves the Arannikas (Forest Dwelling Monks), chose to withdraw from the wealthy monasteries of the capital and adopt a strictly disciplined mode of life and devote themselves in their forest and mountain hermitages to study and meditate. During the 12th century this movement became so strong it extended itself throughout the Theravada world which by then included Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos.

An example of the causes of schisms and cultural influence may be found in the Vinnaya. The Vinnaya is the Buddhist book of discipline for members of the Buddhist Community, i.e. The Sangha. It is one of three parts or baskets (called Pitakas). There is the Sutta Pitaka (the scriptures consisting of sermons of the Buddha and others), The Vinnaya Pitaka (the book of rules and Law for the Sangha), and the Abhidhamma Pitaka (the book of higher law and wisdom).

The Vinnaya specifically points out that Monks are prohibited from working. Later in the migration of Buddhism, as adapted in China and Japan, particularly in the Zen sects, the rules were changed to "No work, no eat." It is claimed that by the beginning of the Common Era, thirty different denominations of schools and sub-schools had developed. Some scholars call this period, "The Period of Eighteen Schools." Some scholars go so far as to suggest that the eighteen schools were in existence as early as the 3rd century B.C.E.

Those who instigated the schisms generally pondered such questions as:

-Is the liberated human being (the Arahat and Bodhisattva) free from all moral and Karmic taint?
-Is the state of liberation (Nirvana) a condition of being or nonbeing?
-Can there be at the same time more than one fully awakened person in one world system, Samyaksambuddha?
-Are persons already on their way to full awakening, such as the Bodhisattvas, deserving of worship?
-Do they have the ability to descend into the hells and help other sentient beings?

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